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Limitations and exceptions to copyright are provisions in copyright law which allow for copyrighted works to be used without a license from the copyright owner. Limitations and exceptions to copyright relate to a number of important considerations such as market failure, freedom of speech,〔P. Bernt Hugenholtz. ''Copyright And Freedom Of Expression In Europe'' (2001) Published in: Rochelle Cooper Dreyfuss, Harry First and Diane Leenheer Zimmerman (eds.), ''Expanding the Boundaries of Intellectual Property'', Oxford University Press〕 education and equality of access (such as by the visually impaired). Some view limitations and exceptions as "user rights" - seeing user rights as providing an essential balance to the rights of the copyright owners. There is no consensus among copyright experts as to whether user rights are rights or simply limitations on copyright. See for example the National Research Council's (Digital Agenda Report, note 1 ). The concept of user rights has also been recognised by courts, including the Canadian Supreme Court in (CCH Canadian Ltd v. Law Society of Upper Canada ) (2004 SCC 13), which classed "fair dealing" as such a user right. These kinds of disagreements in philosophy are quite common in the philosophy of copyright, where debates about jurisprudential reasoning tend to act as proxies for more substantial disagreements about good policy. ==Changing technology== The scope of copyright limitations and exceptions became a subject of significant controversy within various nations in the late 1990s and early 2000s, largely due to the impact of digital technology, the changes in national copyright legislations for compliance with TRIPS, and the enactment of anti-circumvention rules in response to the WIPO Copyright Treaty. This is becoming increasingly a topic of political debate.〔http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc10/EDOC12101.htm〕 Academics and defenders of copyright exceptions fear that technology, contract law undermining copyright law and copyright law not being amended, is reducing the scope of important exceptions and therefore harming creativity. For example, at a European level in May 2010 a declaration entitled Copyright for Creativity〔(Copyright for Creativity.Broad coalition calls for European copyright to support digital creativity and innovation ) 5 May 2010.〕 was launched supported by industry, artist, education and consumer groups. The declaration states that "While exclusive rights have been adapted and harmonised to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy, copyright’s exceptions are radically out of line with the needs of the modern information society. The lack of harmonisation of exceptions hinders the circulation of knowledge based goods and services across Europe. The lack of flexibility within the current European exceptions regime also prevents us from adapting to a constantly changing technological environment." Attempts at expansion of copyright limitations and exceptions are sometimes regarded as a threat by publishers.〔(An open letter ) to the Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, prepared by publishers and signed by 20 people, including writers (at least one of whom regretted it), a translator and a heir, and sent to mass media in December 2010; which demanded to stop (a bill ) allowing libraries to create, without a permission, single digital copies of works, and stating the limitations on liability of ISPs and hosters. 〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Limitations and exceptions to copyright」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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